Author: Opti Admin

Russia,^[c] or the Russian Federation,^[14][d] is a transcontinental country located in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. It extends from the Baltic Sea in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east, and from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea in the south. Russia covers over 17,125,200 square kilometres (6,612,100 sq mi), spanning more than one-eighth of the Earth’s inhabited land area, stretching eleven time zones, and bordering 16 sovereign nations. Moscow is the country’s capital and largest city, other major cities include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod, Chelyabinsk and Samara.

Russia is the largest country in the world, the ninth-most populous country, as well as the most populous country in Europe. The country is one of the world’s most sparsely populated and urbanized. About half of the country’s total area is forested, concentrating around four-fifths of its total population of over 146.7 million on its smaller and dense western portion, as opposed to its larger and sparse eastern portion. Russia is administratively divided into 85 federal subjects. The Moscow Metropolitan Area is the largest metropolitan area in Europe, and among the largest in the world, with more than 20 million residents.

The Persians are an Iranian ethnic group that make up over half the population of Iran.^[2][3] They share a common cultural system and are native speakers of the Persian language,^[4][5][6] as well as languages closely related to Persian.^[7]

The ancient Persians were originally an ancient Iranian people who migrated to the region of Persis, corresponding to the modern province of Fars in southwestern Iran, by the ninth century BC.^[8][9] Together with their compatriot allies, they established and ruled some of the world’s most powerful empires,^[10][9] well-recognized for their massive cultural, political, and social influence covering much of the territory and population of the ancient world.^[11][12][13] Throughout history, Persians have contributed greatly to art and science.^[14][15][16] Persian literature is one of the world’s most prominent literary traditions.^[17]

In contemporary terminology, people of Persian heritage native specifically to present-day Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan are referred to as Tajiks, whereas those in the Caucasus (primarily in the present-day Republic of Azerbaijan and the Russian federal subject of Dagestan), albeit heavily assimilated, are referred to as Tats.^[18][19] However, historically, the terms Tajik and Tat were used as synonymous and interchangeable with Persian.^[18] Many influential Persian figures hailed from outside Iran’s present-day borders to the northeast in Central Asia and Afghanistan and to a lesser extent to the northwest in the Caucasus proper.^[20][21] In historical contexts, especially in English, “Persians” may be defined more loosely to cover all subjects of the ancient Persian polities, regardless of ethnic background.

The Neo-Assyrian Empire (Assyrian cuneiform:  mat Aš-šur ^KI, “Country of the city of god Aššur“; also phonetically  mat Aš-šur)^[a] was an Iron Age Mesopotamian empire, in existence between 911 and 609 BC,^[10][11][12] and became the largest empire of the world up until that time.^{[13][unreliable source?]} The Assyrians perfected early techniques of imperial rule, many of which became standard in later empires.^[14] The Assyrians were the first to be armed with iron weapons, and their troops employed advanced, effective military tactics.^[15]

Following the conquests of Adad-nirari II in the late 10th century BC, Assyria emerged as the most powerful state in the world at the time, coming to dominate the Ancient Near East, East Mediterranean, Asia Minor, Caucasus, and parts of the Arabian Peninsula and North Africa, eclipsing and conquering rivals such as Babylonia, Elam, Persia, Urartu, Lydia, the Medes, Phrygians, Cimmerians, Israel, Judah, Phoenicia, Chaldea, Canaan, the Kushite Empire, the Arabs, and Egypt.

The Iron Age is the final epoch of the three-age division of the prehistory and protohistory of humanity. It was preceded by the Stone Age (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Chalcolithic) and the Bronze Age. The concept has been mostly applied to Europe and the Ancient Near East, and, by analogy, also to other parts of the Old World.

The duration of the Iron Age varies depending on the region under consideration. It is defined by archaeological convention, and the mere presence of some cast or wrought iron is not sufficient to represent an Iron Age culture; rather, the “Iron Age” begins locally when the production of iron or steel has been brought to the point where iron tools and weapons superior to their bronze equivalents become widespread.^[1] For example, Tutankhamun’s meteoric iron dagger comes from the Bronze Age. In the Ancient Near East, this transition takes place in the wake of the so-called Bronze Age collapse, in the 12th century BC. The technology soon spread throughout the Mediterranean Basin region and to South Asia. Its further spread to Central Asia, Eastern Europe, and Central Europe is somewhat delayed, and Northern Europe is reached still later, by about 500 BC.

Ancient history (*) as a term refers to the aggregate of past events^[1] from the beginning of writing and recorded human history and extending as far as post-classical history. The phrase may be used either to refer to the period of time or the academic discipline.

The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, beginning with the Sumerian cuneiform script, with the oldest coherent texts from about 2600 BC.^[2] Ancient history covers all continents inhabited by humans in the period 3000 BC – AD 500.

The broad term “ancient history” is not to be confused with “classical antiquity”. The term classical antiquity is often used to refer to Western history in the Ancient Mediterranean from the beginning of recorded Greek history in 776 BC (first Olympiad). This roughly coincides with the traditional date of the founding of Rome in 753 BC, the beginning of the history of ancient Rome, and the beginning of the Archaic period in Ancient Greece.

The academic term “history” is not to be confused with colloquial references to times past. History is fundamentally the study of the past, and can be either scientific (archaeology) or humanistic (history through language).

Dogs in warfare have a very long history starting in ancient times. From being trained in combat, to their use as scouts, sentries, and trackers, their uses have been varied and some continue to exist in modern military usage.

The dog (Canis familiaris when considered a distinct species or Canis lupus familiaris when considered a subspecies of the wolf)^[5] is a domesticatedcarnivore of the familyCanidae. It is part of the wolf-like canids,^[6] and is the most widely abundant terrestrial carnivore.^{[7][8][9][10][11]} The dog and the extantgray wolf are sister taxa as modern wolves are not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated,^[12][13][14] which implies that the direct ancestor of the dog is extinct.^[15] The dog was the first species to be domesticated,^[14][16] and has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes.^[17]

Naše Osónčje (tudi Sónčev sistém ali sestàv) je sestav astronomskih teles, ki ga sestavljajo zvezda Sonce in množica drugih teles, ki kroži okrog njega.^[a] Okrog Sonca kroži osem planetov, izmed katerih je tretji – planet Zemlja – naseljen. Poleg planetov sestavlja Osončje še vsaj 158 naravnih satelitov, ki krožijo okrog planetov, ter večje število preostalih majhnih teles, kot so asteroidi, planetoidi, kometi in meteoroidi.

Naše Osončje leži v spiralni galaksiji, imenovani Rimska cesta oziroma kar Galaksija z veliko začetnico. Obhodni čas njegovega tira je galaktično leto.

Uporaba izraza »sončni sistem« za druge zvezdne oziroma planetne sestave je neprimerna, saj smo v vesolju le eno zvezdo poimenovali Sonce.

Lúna je Zemljin edini naravni satelit. Povprečna oddaljenost Lune od Zemlje je 384.403 km, približno 30,13 Zemljinih ekvatorskih premerov, zato odbita sončna svetloba z njenega površja doseže Zemljo v približno 1,255 sekunde. Njena trenutna tirna oddaljenost povzroča, da je njena navidezna velikost skoraj enaka Sončevi, kar se kaže v popolnih Sončevih mrkih. Premer Lune znaša 3476 km, s čimer je Zemljina Luna peti največji naravni satelit v Osončju, tako po premeru, kot po masi. Pred njo so Ganimed, Titan, Kalisto in Io. Luna je največji naravni satelit Osončja glede na matični planet, saj je njen premer velik 1/4 Zemljinega, njena masa pa je 1/81 Zemljine. Je drugi najgostejši naravni satelit za Io. Lunin tir je sočasen z Zemljinim vrtenjem, tako da opazovalec na Zemlji vidi vedno isto stran Lune. Za bližnjo stran Lune so značilna temna ognjeniška morja med svetlimi starodavnimi skorjastimi gorami in izrazitimi udarnimi kraterji. Čeprav je navidezni sij Lune za Soncem največji, je njeno površje dejansko zelo temno, s podobnim odbojnim koeficientom kot ga ima premog. Njena pojava na nebu in njene stalne mene so že od nekdaj pomembno kulturno vplivale na jezik, koledar, umetnost in mitologijo. Lunino gravitacijsko polje povzroča plimovanje in minutno daljšanje koledarskega leta. Simbol Lune je srp (Unicode: ☾ in ☽).

Prvi človeški predmet, ki je padel na Lunino površje, je bila sonda Luna 2 v letu 1959. Prve fotografije nam nevidne druge strani Lune je istega leta naredila Luna 3. Prvo vesoljsko plovilo, ki je opravilo mehak pristanek, je bilo Luna 9 leta 1966. Prva človeška odprava v Lunino tirnico je bila odprava Apollo 8, prvič pa je nanjo stopil človek leta 1969 s krova odprave Apollo 11. Je edino nebesno telo poleg Zemlje, na katerega je do sedaj stopil človek. Nasine odprave Programa Apollo so prinesle na Zemljo več kot 380 kg lunarnih skal. Z njihovo pomočjo so lahko razvili podrobno geološko sliko nastanka Lune, (ki naj bi nastala nekako pred 4,5 milijardami let v velikem trku), tvorbo njene notranjosti in njene kasnejše zgodovine. Od zadnje odprave Apollo 17 leta 1972 so na Luni pristala le vesoljska plovila brez človeške posadke. Od leta 2004 so na Luno poslale vsaka svoj lunarni orbiter Japonska, Kitajska, Indija, ZDA in Evropska vesoljska agencija. Ta plovila so potrdila odkritje obstoja vodnega ledu v stalno zasenčenih kraterjih na tečajih in omejenega v lunarnem regolitu. Načrtujejo še več odprav na Luno. Luno po dogovoru o odprtem vesolju lahko za mirnodobne namene raziskujejo vsi narodi.

Mercury is the smallest and innermost planet in the Solar System. Its orbit around the Sun takes 87.97 days, the shortest of all the planets in the Solar System. It is named after the Greek god Hermes (Ερμής), translated into Latin Mercurius Mercury, god of commerce, messenger of the gods, mediator between gods and mortals.

Like Venus, Mercury orbits the Sun within Earth’s orbit as an inferior planet, and its apparent distance from the Sun as viewed from Earth never exceeds 28°. This proximity to the Sun means the planet can only be seen near the western horizon after sunset or eastern horizon before sunrise, usually in twilight. At this time, it may appear as a bright star-like object, but is often far more difficult to observe than Venus. The planet telescopically displays the complete range of phases, similar to Venus and the Moon, as it moves in its inner orbit relative to Earth, which recurs over its synodic period of approximately 116 days.

Mercury rotates in a way that is unique in the Solar System. It is tidally locked with the Sun in a 3:2 spin–orbit resonance,^[16] meaning that relative to the fixed stars, it rotates on its axis exactly three times for every two revolutions it makes around the Sun.^[a][17] As seen from the Sun, in a frame of reference that rotates with the orbital motion, it appears to rotate only once every two Mercurian years. An observer on Mercury would therefore see only one day every two Mercurian years.

Mercury’s axis has the smallest tilt of any of the Solar System’s planets (about ​¹⁄₃₀ degree). Its orbital eccentricity is the largest of all known planets in the Solar System;^[b] at perihelion, Mercury’s distance from the Sun is only about two-thirds (or 66%) of its distance at aphelion. Mercury’s surface appears heavily cratered and is similar in appearance to the Moon‘s, indicating that it has been geologically inactive for billions of years. Having almost no atmosphere to retain heat, it has surface temperatures that vary diurnally more than on any other planet in the Solar System, ranging from 100 K (−173 °C; −280 °F) at night to 700 K (427 °C; 800 °F) during the day across the equatorial regions.^[18] The polar regions are constantly below 180 K (−93 °C; −136 °F). The planet has no known natural satellites.

Two spacecraft have visited Mercury: Mariner 10 flew by in 1974 and 1975; and MESSENGER, launched in 2004, orbited Mercury over 4,000 times in four years before exhausting its fuel and crashing into the planet’s surface on April 30, 2015.The BepiColombo spacecraft is planned to arrive at Mercury in 2025.